Bridging circularity and inclusion in urban metabolic transitions: Through the lens of waste system evolution in Almere, the Netherlands

Waste is a key material stock and flow in urban metabolism, and circular economy (CE) strategies are increasingly promoted to enhance resource efficiency and reduce environmental burdens. Yet CE practices do not always evolve in harmony with dynamic social needs, leading to exclusionary outcomes. To examine how circularity and inclusion interact in urban metabolic transitions, this paper analyses the evolution of Almere's waste system from the 1970s to the 2020s as a longitudinal case study. Using the Municipal Solid Waste Infrastructure System (MSWIS) model and a combination of qualitative and quantitative indicators, we identify three phases of sociotechnical system change. The findings reveal that while regulatory reforms and infrastructure upgrades advanced material recovery, more transformative outcomes emerged where inclusive governance arrangements and grassroots innovations were integrated into the waste system. Almere's experience demonstrates that when technological efficiency is aligned with social equity, waste systems can become engines of circular and inclusive urban transitions.