Sometimes linear, sometimes circular: states of the economy and transitions to the future

A common thread in the circular economy literature is the linear–circular contrast. This study shows that the economy has always been a mix of circular and linear applications but in varying proportions. Furthermore, the scrutiny of emblematic examples both reveals misconceptions and enriches the extant knowledge of both frameworks and their relationship. This study also explains which aspects encourage an economy to lean towards either the linear or the circular (i.e., profit, scarcity, circumstances, and business opportunities), why the economy should be circular, and which factors (e.g., redundancy, overproduction, fast consumption) prevent the systematic application of circular practices by favouring the throwaway society. The lock-ins/systemic path-dependent forces that underpin and perpetuate the linear economy are analysed together with their effects on the economic system. Finally, this study considers three pathways named ‘lessening’, ‘sharing’ and ‘valorising’ for the diffusion of circular solutions and the disarticulation of the linear-economy drivers.